Brief Contents (Download links)

CHAPTER 1 The Ocean Planet 1-14

CHAPTER 2 History and Importance of Ocean Studies 15-36

CHAPTER 3 Studying the Oceans 37-62

CHAPTER 4 Plate Tectonics: Evolution of the Ocean Floor 63-92

CHAPTER 5 Water and Seawater 93-118

CHAPTER 6 Ocean Sediments 119-144

CHAPTER 7 Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions 145-178

CHAPTER 8 Ocean Circulation 179-208

CHAPTER 9 Waves 209-234

CHAPTER 10 Tides 235-256

CHAPTER 11 Coasts 257-286

CHAPTER 12 Foundations of Life in the Oceans 287-322

CHAPTER 13 Coastal Oceans and Estuaries 323-354

CHAPTER 14 Marine Ecology 355-402

CHAPTER 15 Ocean Ecosystems 403-426

CHAPTER 16 Impacts of Humans on the Oceans 427-454

CRITICAL CONCEPTS  455-504

GLOSSARY  506-520

APPENDICES  521-533

INDEX Index  Index 1-Index 29

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1

The Ocean Planet

INTRODUCTION

THE OCEANS AND EARTH’S ENVIRONMENT

OCEANS AND THE ORIGINS OF LIFE

HOW TO STUDY OCEAN DATA

Graphs

Contour Plots and Profiles

Maps and Charts

Scientific Notation and Units

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 2

History and Importance of Ocean Studies

WHAT IS OCEANOGRAPHY?

EXPLORATION AND MAPPING

Prehistory

Ocean Exploration in Early Civilizations

The Mediterranean.

Micronesia and Polynesia.

The Dark Ages and the New Era of Discovery

The Birth of Oceanography

The Beagle.

The Challenger.

The Modern Era

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW APPLIED TO THE OCEANS

The Truman Proclamation

“Law of the Sea” Conferences

The Law of the Sea Treaty

Exclusive Economic Zones and extended Continental Shelf Rights

OCEAN RESOURCES

Biological Resources

Transportation, Trade, and Military Use

Offshore Oil and Gas

Methane Hydrates

Minerals and Freshwater

Recreation, Aesthetics, and Endangered Species

Energy

Waste Disposal

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3

Studying the Oceans

DIFFICULTIES OF STUDYING THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

“Seeing” through Ocean Water

Inaccessibility

Pressure

Conductivity, Corrosion, and Fouling

Wave Motion

Logistics

THE UNSEEN DOMAIN

BATHYMETRY

Soundings

Sounding Errors and Problems

Echo Sounders

Wide-Area Echo Sounders

Ocean Topography from Satellites

SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS

Grab Samplers and Box Corers

Gravity and Piston Corers

Drilling Ships

Seismic, Magnetic, and Gravity Studies

Dredges

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Sampling Bottles

Avoiding Sample Contamination

Determining the Depth of Sampling

Instrument Probes and Rosette Samplers

Measuring Currents

Drifters, Drogues, and Floats.

Mechanical Current Meters.

Acoustic Current Meters.

SAMPLING LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE SEA

Special Challenges of Biological Oceanography

Nets, Water Samples, and Traps

Fragile Organisms

Migrations and Behavior

SCUBA, MANNED AND UNMANNED SUBMERSIBLES

Scuba and Habitats

Manned Submersibles

Remotely Operated Vehicles

Autonomous Floats and Gliders

SATELLITES

COMPUTERS AND MODELING

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 4

Plate Tectonics: Evolution of the Ocean Floor

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Layered Structure of the Earth

Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere

Studying the Earth’s Interior

PLATE TECTONICS

Driving Forces of Plate Tectonics

Spreading Cycles

PLATE BOUNDARIES

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Subduction Zones Next to Continents

Volcanoes.

Exotic Terranes.

Subduction Zones at Magmatic Arcs

Magmatic Arc Volcanoes.

Back-Arc Basins.

Collisions of Continents

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Oceanic Ridges

Oceanic Ridge Types.

Oceanic Ridge Volcanoes.

Rift Zones

New Oceans.

TRANSFORM FAULTS AND FRACTURE ZONES

HOT SPOTS

A Lesson about Science

PLATE INTERIORS

Oceanic Crust

Continental Edges

Passive Margins.

The Fate of Passive Margins.

SEA-LEVEL CHANGE AND CLIMATE

Climate Cycles

Eustatic Sea-Level Change

Sea-Level Change and Continental Margin Topography

Isostatic Sea-Level Change

Sea Level and the Greenhouse Effect

PRESENT-DAY OCEANS

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

Marginal Seas

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 5

Water and Seawater

ORIGINS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE EARTH’S WATER

Uniqueness of the Earth

Distribution of the Earth’s Water

THE WATER MOLECULE

Atoms and Electrons

Chemical Bonds between Atoms

Van der Waals Force and the Hydrogen Bond

THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER

SOURCES AND SINKS OF CHEMICALS DISSOLVED IN SEAWATER

Biogeochemical Cycles

Steady-State Concentrations

Residence Time

SALINITY

DISSOLVED CHEMICALS IN SEAWATER

Major Constituents

Minor Constituents

Trace Elements

Radionuclides

Organic Compounds

Dissolved Gases

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Other Gases.

pH and Buffering

HEAT PROPERTIES OF WATER

Heat Energy and Phase Changes

Freezing and Boiling Points

Heat Capacity and Latent Heat

Implications of the High Heat Capacity and Latent Heats of Water

Evaporation

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND DISSOLVED SALTS ON SEAWATER DENSITY

Pressure

Temperature

Dissolved Salts and Density

Combined Effects of Salinity and Temperature

ICE FORMATION

Dissolved Salts and Freezing

Density of Ice

SURFACE TENSION AND VISCOSITY

Surface Tension

Viscosity

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT AND OTHER ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Absorption

Scattering and Reflection

Refraction

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND

Sound Velocity

Sonar

Sound Refraction and the Sound Channel

Acoustic Thermometry

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 6

Ocean Sediments

SEDIMENTS AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTS

Classification by Grain Size

Classification by Origin

LITHOGENOUS SEDIMENTS

Transport by Rivers

Erosion by Glaciers

Erosion by Waves

Transport by Winds

Transport by Landslides

BIOGENOUS SEDIMENTS

Regional Variations of Biogenous Particle Production

Dissolution of Biogenous Particles

Carbonate Compensation Depth

Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and the Carbonate Compensation Depth

HYDROGENOUS SEDIMENTS

Hydrothermal Minerals

Undersea Volcano Emissions

Manganese Nodules

Phosphorite Nodules and Crusts

Carbonates

Evaporites

COSMOGENOUS SEDIMENTS

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT, DEPOSITION, AND ACCUMULATION

Turbidity Currents

Accumulation Rates

CONTINENTAL MARGIN SEDIMENTS

DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE SEDIMENTS

Radiolarian Oozes

Diatom Oozes

Calcareous Sediments

Deep-Sea Clays

Siliceous Red Clay Sediments

Ice-Rafted Sediments

Terrigenous Sediments

Hydrothermal Sediments

THE SEDIMENT HISTORICAL RECORD

Sediment Age Dating

Diagenesis

Tectonic History in the Sediments

Climate History in the Sediments

History of Ocean Acidification and Deoxygenation in the Sediments

Evidence of Mass Extinctions

Evidence of Other Impacts

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 7

Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions

THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric Structure

Ozone Depletion

WATER VAPOR IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Water Vapor and Air Density

Water Vapor, Convection, and Condensation

WATER AND HEAT BUDGETS

Water Budget

Heat Budget

Latitudinal Imbalance in the Earth’s Radiation

CLIMATIC WINDS

Climatic Winds on a Nonrotating Earth

Climatic Winds and the Coriolis Effect

Seasonal Variations

Monsoons

CLIMATE AND OCEAN SURFACE WATER PROPERTIES

Ocean Surface Temperatures

Ocean Surface Salinity

INTERANNUAL CLIMATE VARIATIONS

El Niño and the Southern Oscillation

Symptoms of El Niño.

El Niño/Southern Oscillation Sequence.

Effects of El Niño.

Modeling El Niño

El Niño Modoki

Other Oscillations

Climate Chaos?

LAND–OCEAN–ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS

GLOBAL CLIMATE ZONES

Ocean Climate Zones

Land Climate Zones

WEATHER SYSTEMS

High- and Low-Pressure Zones

Hurricanes

Extratropical Cyclones

LOCAL WEATHER EFFECTS

Land and Sea Breezes

Coastal Fog

The Island and Mountain Effect

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 8

Ocean Circulation

ENERGY SOURCES

WIND-DRIVEN CURRENTS

Generation of Currents

Restoring Forces and Steering Forces

EKMAN MOTION

The Ekman Spiral

Pycnocline and Seafloor Interruption of the Ekman Spiral

GEOSTROPHIC CURRENTS

Ekman Transport, Sea Surface Slope, and Pressure Gradient

Balance between Pressure Gradient and Coriolis Effect

Dynamic Topography

Energy Storage

OPEN-OCEAN SURFACE CURRENTS

Geostrophic Currents on a Water-Covered Earth

Geostrophic Gyres

Westward Intensification of Boundary Currents

EQUATORIAL SURFACE CURRENTS

HIGH-LATITUDE SURFACE CURRENTS

UPWELLING AND DOWNWELLING

Locations of Upwelling and Downwelling

Boundary Currents and Upwelling or Downwelling

COASTAL CURRENTS

EDDIES

Satellite Observations of Eddies

Mesoscale Eddies

INERTIAL CURRENTS

LANGMUIR CIRCULATION

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION

Depth Distribution of Temperature and Salinity

Formation of Deep Water Masses

Locations of Deep Water-Mass Formation

Water Masses at Intermediate Depths

OCEAN CIRCULATION AND CLIMATE

Meridional Overturning Circulation: The Conveyor Belt

The MOC Climate Switch

TRACING WATER MASSES

Conservative and Nonconservative Properties

TS Diagrams

Tracers

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 9

Waves

COMPLEXITY OF OCEAN WAVES

PROGRESSIVE WAVES

WHAT IS WAVE MOTION?

Wave Energy

Restoring Forces

MAKING WAVES

Forces That Create Waves

Wind Waves

SEA DEVELOPMENT AND WAVE HEIGHT

Factors Affecting Maximum Wave Heights

Maximum Observed Wave Heights

Effects of Currents on Wave Height

Are Wave Heights Increasing?

WAVE DISSIPATION

DEEP-WATER WAVES

Wave Trains

Wave Interference

Wave Dispersion

WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER

Interaction with the Seafloor

Wave Refraction

Breaking Waves

Surfing

Surf Drownings and Rip Currents

TSUNAMIS

INTERNAL WAVES

ROSSBY AND KELVIN WAVES

STANDING WAVES

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 10

Tides

TIDE-GENERATING FORCES

Gravity

Orbital Motions and Centripetal Force

The Balance between Centripetal Force and Gravitational Force

Distribution of Tide-Generating Forces

Relative Magnitude of the Lunar and Solar Tide-Generating Forces

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TIDES

Diurnal, Semidiurnal, and Mixed Tides

Spring and Neap Tides

TIDES ON AN OCEAN COVERED EARTH

The Fundamental Equilibrium Tides

The Origin of Spring and Neap Tides

Other Tidal Variations

TIDES IN THE EARTH’S OCEANS

Effects of Continents and Ocean Depth

Latitudinal Variation of the Earth’s Spin Velocity

Coriolis Effect and Amphidromic Systems

TIDES IN THE OPEN OCEANS

TIDAL CURRENTS

Open-Ocean Tidal Currents

Temporal Variation of Tidal-Current Speeds

Tidal Currents in Estuaries and Rivers

TIDE PREDICTION

MARINE SPECIES AND THE RHYTHM OF THE TIDES

ENERGY FROM THE TIDES

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 11

Coasts

PROCESSES THAT FORM AND MODIFY THE COASTLINE

Formation of Coasts

Tectonic Processes

Landslides

Isostatic and Eustatic Sea-Level Changes

Glaciers

River-Borne Sediments

Biological Processes

Modification of the Coast

Waves

Tides

Winds and Weather

Vegetation

BEACHES

The Littoral Zone

Sources of Beach Materials

Longshore Drift

Wave Sorting of Beach Sands

Seasonal Changes in Beach Profiles

Beach Slope and Grain Size

BARRIER ISLANDS AND LAGOONS

Formation of Barrier Islands

Future of Barrier Islands

Development on Barrier Islands

BEACHES AND HUMAN STRUCTURES

Seawalls

Groins and Jetties

Harbors

CORAL REEFS AND ATOLLS

WETLANDS

DELTAS

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 12

Foundations of Life in the Oceans

HOW DO WE DESCRIBE LIFE?

PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, AND DECOMPOSITION

Phototrophy

Chemosynthesis

Secondary Production and Decomposers

MICROBES IN CHARGE

PHOTOTROPIC PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND LIGHT

Phototrophy, Light, and Depth

Primary Production and the Ozone Hole

PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND NUTRIENTS

Nutrient Uptake

Nutrient Recycling

Phosphorus

Nitrogen

Silica

Iron

High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (HNLC) Areas

Nutrient Transport and Supply

Vertical Distribution of Nutrients

FOOD WEBS

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN PRIMARY PRODUCTION

DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

ORGANIC CARBON

BIOLOGICAL PROVINCES AND ZONES

Benthic Environment

Pelagic Environment

Latitudinal Zones

PLANKTON

Bacteria and Archaea

Phytoplankton

Diatoms

Dinoflagellates

Coccolithophores and Other Types of Phytoplankton

Zooplankton.

Holoplankton

Gelatinous Holoplankton

Meroplankton

NEKTON

Bony Fishes

Sharks and Rays

Squid and Their Relatives

Marine Mammals

Reptiles

Birds

BENTHOS

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 13

Coastal Oceans and Estuaries

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COASTAL OCEANS

Salinity

Temperature

Waves and Tides

Turbidity and the Photic Zone

Currents

Nutrients

NUTRIENT SUPPLY TO THE COASTAL PHOTIC ZONE

Wind-Driven Coastal Upwelling

Biology of Coastal Upwelling Zones

Other Mechanisms of Nutrient Supply

SEASONAL CYCLES

Polar and Subpolar Regions

Tropical Regions

Mid Latitudes

Phytoplankton Species Succession

ALGAL BLOOMS

Dinoflagellate and Other Plankton Toxins

Oxygen Depletion and Dead Zones

FISHERIES

ESTUARIES

Geological Origin of Estuaries

Estuarine Circulation

Types of Estuarine Circulation

Salt Wedge Estuaries.

Partially Mixed Estuaries.

Well-Mixed Estuaries.

Fjord Estuaries.

Inverse Estuaries.

Particle and Contaminant Transport in Estuaries

Estuarine Biology

Anadromous and Catadromous Species

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 14

Marine Ecology

ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS

HABITATS

Pelagic Habitat

Benthic Epifaunal Habitat

Other Ocean Habitats

FEEDING

Suspension Feeding

Pelagic Suspension Feeders

Benthic Suspension Feeders

Surface Grazing

Deposit Feeding

HUNTING AND DEFENSE

Speed

Lures

Camouflage and Mimicry

Concealment

Spines and Armor

Poisons

Group Cooperation

SELECTED ADAPTATIONS IN FISHES

Swimming Adaptations

Adaptations of Fins

Osmoregulation

Swim Bladders and Buoyancy

REPRODUCTION

Separate-Sex Reproduction

Hermaphroditism

Asexual Reproduction

Egg Laying

Timing

Migration

ASSOCIATIONS

COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 15

Ocean Ecosystems

COMMUNITIES AND NICHES

CORAL REEFS

Environmental Requirements for Coral Reef Formation

Factors Affecting Coral Reef Productivity

Primary Producers in the Coral Reef Community

Coral Reef Niches and Topography

KELP FORESTS

Kelp Community Environmental Characteristics

Kelp Life Cycle and Communities

Kelp, Sea Otters, and Sea Urchins

ROCKY INTERTIDAL COMMUNITIES

Supralittoral Zone

High-Tide Zone

Middle-Tide Zone

Low-Tide Zone

Tide Pools

SARGASSO SEA

POLAR REGIONS

Special Characteristics of Arctic Marine Environments

Common Characteristics of Arctic and Antarctic Marine Environments

Antarctic Communities

Arctic Communities

Susceptibility to Climate Change

BEYOND THE SUN’S LIGHT

HYDROTHERMAL VENTS

Hydrothermal Vent Environments

Biological Communities Associated with Hydrothermal Vents

Unanswered Questions about Hydrothermal Vents

Other Chemosynthetic Communities

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 16

Impacts of Humans on the Oceans

POLLUTION VERSUS CONTAMINATION

Assimilative Capacity

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Interference with Photosynthesis and Respiration

Habitat Alteration

Community Structure Alteration

Contamination of Food Resources

Beach Closures and Aesthetic Losses

TOXICITY

Effects of Toxic Substances on Marine Organisms

Evaluating Toxicity

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Toxins

WASTE DISPOSAL

OCEAN POLLUTION ISSUES

Petroleum

Sewage

Urban and Agricultural Runoff

Industrial Effluents

Dredged Material

Plastics and Trash

Antifouling Paints

Radionuclides

Noise

Nonidigenous Species

Habitat Alteration

Fishing

CLIMATE CHANGE, ACIDIFICATION AND DEOXYGENATION

The Oceans and Climate Change

Acidification

Deoxygenation

Climate Change Summary

RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Critical Concepts

CRITICAL CONCEPT 1

Density and Layering in Fluids

CRITICAL CONCEPT 2

Isostasy, Eustasy, and Sea Level

CRITICAL CONCEPT 3

Convection and Convection Cells

CRITICAL CONCEPT 4

Particle Size, Sinking, Deposition, and Resuspension

CRITICAL CONCEPT 5

Transfer and Storage of Heat by Water

CRITICAL CONCEPT 6

Salinity, Temperature, Pressure, and Water Density

CRITICAL CONCEPT 7

Radioactivity and Age Dating

CRITICAL CONCEPT 8

Residence Time

CRITICAL CONCEPT 9

The Global Greenhouse Effect

CRITICAL CONCEPT 10

Modeling

CRITICAL CONCEPT 11

Chaos

CRITICAL CONCEPT 12

The Coriolis Effect

CRITICAL CONCEPT 13

Geostrophic Flow

CRITICAL CONCEPT 14

Phototrophy, Light, and Nutrients

CRITICAL CONCEPT 15

Food Chain Efficiency

CRITICAL CONCEPT 16

Maximum Sustainable Yield

CRITICAL CONCEPT 17

Species Diversity and Biodiversity

CRITICAL CONCEPT 18

Toxicity

Glossary

Appendix 1

Units and Conversion Factors

Appendix 2

Dimensions of the Earth and Oceans

Appendix 3

Classification of Marine Organisms

Appendix 4

Some Milestones in the History of Ocean Study

INDEX